Guiding Principles of Teaching EAL Students:
Below we have highlighted some generally agreed upon principles for teaching EAL students. These principles are highlighted in Jim Cummins' and Margaret Early's book "Big Ideas for Expanding Minds" (2015), an exceptional read that highlights practical suggestions and strategies for teaching EAL students.
1. Conversational language proficiency is different than academic language proficiency.
2. EAL students must have access to comprehensible input that is slightly beyond their current levels, and have opportunities to use language meaningfully.
4. EAL students with a strong home language (L1) skills are more likely to catch up to their English speaking peers than those with weak L1 skills.
5. EAL students learn more effectively in a safe and welcoming classroom environment.
6. Explicit instruction on linguistic form and function is essential to English language acquisition. (Cummins & Early, 2015, p. 13).
The Importance of Engagement
There has been extensive research in the area of underachievement among EAL students. Many researchers attribute this underachievement to an undervaluing and marginalization of these students. The following framework, as presented by Cummins & Early (2015), demonstrates the suggested instructional responses to achieve literacy engagement and thus achievement.
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| (Cummins & Early, 2015, p. 30)
Below, Jim Cummins discusses how we can empower EAL students, and suggests that they must be motivated and engaged in the learning process, and also feel capable of tackling the new learning experiences.
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It also important for educators to understand the expectations that we impose upon our EAL learners, and be conscious of the rate of language acquisition that is common for EAL students. This will help teachers to set realistic goals and expectations, as well as allow us advocate for our students, should additional interventions be necessary. Teachers measure our students based on their proximity to grade-level outcomes/expectations. In doing so, however, we have to keep in mind that those expectations change as students age and progress through the grade levels. Research has shown that many EAL students will meet grade level expectations approximately six years after immigration. If we expect an EAL student to "catch up" to his/her English speaking classmates in six years time, we are expecting that they make fifteen months of academic gains in ten months. We must keep in mind, however, that we are asking these students to catch up to a moving target. The goal that they are looking to achieve is continuously changing as their classmates learn and progress, and as the curricular expectations at each grade level change.
The figure below shows that the majority of EAL students will achieve grade-level proficiency of conversational language at around two years.
Conversational language develops much more quickly, as a result of the necessity of its development, and the fact that, when we converse, we use the same high frequency words, complete with nonverbal cues for comprehension. Furthermore, the social isolation of not speaking the language of majority contributes to the motivation of many EAL students.
Academic language involves the less frequent vocabulary that may be derived from Latin and Greek sources, and that has more complex grammatical structures. For example, predict, sequence, infer, impact, generalize, etc.
In the figure below, you will note the differences between the time it takes to achieve proficiency in each area.
(Cummins, 2001, p. 75)
The Connection between Home Language (L1) and Second Language (L2):
The Separate Underlying Proficiency (SUP) model, pictured below, implies that the knowledge of a students' first language does not transfer, nor does it aid the accusation of their second language (L2). It further suggests that the content and skills learned through their first language (L1) can not transfer into L2 and vice versa. The SUP model essentially segregates the two languages, and suggests that one does not impact the other. Teachers often hold misconceptions that align with this model.
The Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) model demonstrated that cognitive and academic knowledge transfers between students' L1 and L2. In fact, students are stronger in acquiring their second language once they have mastered the underlying language structures of their first language.
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| (Cummins, 2001, p. 173) |
Through our personal experience in teaching EAL students, we have come to accept the Common Underlying Proficiency model and recognize the importance of connecting the common language structures and fostering the development of students' home language. (Cummins, 2001, p. 173-174)
Carolina (a pseudonym) arrived in Canada, at the age of 10 from her home county of Cuba. She came from a home where the importance of school and her English language development was valued. She had a very strong grounding in Spanish and was able to transfer her knowledge and skills into the Canadian setting. She would often translate vocabulary and concepts, becoming fascinated with cognates. She delighted in sharing the connections she made between her L1 and L2. For these reasons, Carolina was able to achieve grade level expectations in all curricular areas within two years of her arrival in Canada. Unfortunately, Carolina is an exception rather than a rule, as many EAL students do not arrive in Canada with proficiency in their first language. The importance of developing their home language needs to be emphasized by all educators.
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| (Cummins, 2001, p. 174) |
Identity Affirming Practices
We believe that teaching is about relationships. Research has proven that the interactions or relationships between the student and teacher is the most effective determinant of student success or failure. Taking that information and thinking about an EAL student who comes into an unfamiliar situation, in an environment where the language spoken is one other than their home language, a caring and patient teacher who demonstrates an appreciation for ALL students is a necessity. Creating an environment that values diversity and accepts all students and what they can contribute to the community will serve as a demonstration of our appreciation of who our students are.
We must also remember and recognize that our EAL students are likely grappling with their own confusion of who they are and where they fit. Do they "forget" their past culture and assimilate, or do they celebrate their differences? As teachers of middle school aged children, most pre-teens question their own identities, but our EAL students are often facing more complex questions in this regard.
Teachers must find ways to communicate our respect and value of different cultures, and we must find ways to help students along this journey.
Examples of identity affirming practices might include:
- welcoming/encouraging students' home language
- home/school (bilingual) journalling
- dual language books
- dual/multi language activities
- cultural sharing/teaching
Moving Forward with Your School
Making change in schools is difficult and takes time. Cummins and Early (2015) suggest using, and adapting the following grid to help school staff work collaboratively to improve their school's learning environment (p. 133). We believe this to be a valuable process for school teams to work through.
